Journal of Pedagogical Sociology and Psychology
The impact of Socratic method on middle school students’ achievement in non-routine problem solving and their attitudes toward mathematical problem solving
Muhammet Şahal 1 * , Ayşe Akdaş 2
More Detail
1 Yıldız Technical University, Faculty of Education, Department of Mathematics and Science Education, Istanbul, Türkiye
2 Istanbul 29 Mayıs University Faculty of Education, Department of Mathematics and Science Education, Istanbul, Türkiye
* Corresponding Author
Open Access Full Text (PDF)
ARTICLE INFO

Journal of Pedagogical Sociology and Psychology, Online First, pp. -
https://doi.org/10.33902/JPSP.202645881

Article Type: Research Article

Published Online: 13 Aug 2026

Views: 2 | Downloads: 1

ABSTRACT
Non-routine problems play a significant role in mathematics learning due to their potential to foster students’ reasoning, inquiry, and critical thinking skills. Students, however, often experience difficulties in solving these problems and may experience negative attitudes toward them. In this context, the Socratic method, which is a dialectical dialogue organized through questions and answers, may serve as an effective tool for solving non-routine problems. This study investigates the effect of problem-solving activities supported by the Socratic method on students’ achievement in non-routine problems and their mathematics problem-solving attitudes. A quasi-experimental pre-test-post-test control group design was adopted. The sample consisted of a total of 33 seventh-grade students, including 16 in the experimental group and 17 in the control group. Data was collected through a non-routine problem-solving achievement test and a mathematics problem-solving attitude scale, which consists of teaching and enjoyment dimensions, administered before and after the implementation. The findings indicate that the Socratic method led to a significant improvement in students’ achievement in non-routine problems. However, mathematics problem-solving attitudes scores declined in both groups. This decline was particularly evident in the teaching dimension of scale and may be associated with the cognitive demands of non-routine problems and the abstract nature of algebra. In conclusion, while the Socratic method appears to be effective in improving achievement in non-routine problems, its implementation should be supported by strategies that address students’ affective needs.
KEYWORDS
achievement attitude middle school mathematics non-routine problems problem-solving Socratic method
In-text citation: (Şahal & Akdaş, 2026)
Reference: Şahal, M., & Akdaş, A. (2026). The impact of Socratic method on middle school students’ achievement in non-routine problem solving and their attitudes toward mathematical problem solving. Journal of Pedagogical Sociology and Psychology. https://doi.org/10.33902/JPSP.202645881
In-text citation: (1), (2), (3), etc.
Reference: Şahal M, Akdaş A. The impact of Socratic method on middle school students’ achievement in non-routine problem solving and their attitudes toward mathematical problem solving. Journal of Pedagogical Sociology and Psychology. 2026. https://doi.org/10.33902/JPSP.202645881
In-text citation: (1), (2), (3), etc.
Reference: Şahal M, Akdaş A. The impact of Socratic method on middle school students’ achievement in non-routine problem solving and their attitudes toward mathematical problem solving. Journal of Pedagogical Sociology and Psychology. 2026. https://doi.org/10.33902/JPSP.202645881
In-text citation: (Şahal and Akdaş, 2026)
Reference: Şahal, Muhammet, and Ayşe Akdaş. "The impact of Socratic method on middle school students’ achievement in non-routine problem solving and their attitudes toward mathematical problem solving". Journal of Pedagogical Sociology and Psychology (2026). https://doi.org/10.33902/JPSP.202645881
In-text citation: (Şahal and Akdaş, 2026)
Reference: Şahal, M., and Akdaş, A. (2026). The impact of Socratic method on middle school students’ achievement in non-routine problem solving and their attitudes toward mathematical problem solving. Journal of Pedagogical Sociology and Psychology. https://doi.org/10.33902/JPSP.202645881
In-text citation: (Şahal and Akdaş, 2026)
Reference: Şahal, Muhammet et al. "The impact of Socratic method on middle school students’ achievement in non-routine problem solving and their attitudes toward mathematical problem solving". Journal of Pedagogical Sociology and Psychology, 2026. https://doi.org/10.33902/JPSP.202645881
REFERENCES
  • Akkuş, O., & Duatepe-Paksu, A. (2006). Construction of a proportional reasoning test and its rubrics. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 25, 1–10.
  • Arslan, C., & Altun, M. (2007). Learning to solve non-routine problems. Elementary Education Online, 6(1), 50–61.
  • Ataş Koçluk, Y., & Tanışlı, D. (2026). Algebraic thinking in the context of geometry and measurement: Eighth-grade students’ reasoning processes. Journal of Pedagogical Research. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.33902/JPR.202641940
  • Benson, H. H. (2011). Socratic method. In Morrison, D. R. (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Socrates (pp. 179–200). Cambridge University Press.
  • Berg, L. (2024). Motivating math students through Socratic pedagogy [Unpublished master’s thesis]. Washington College of Education.
  • Boghossian, P. (2012). Socratic pedagogy: Perplexity, humiliation, shame and a broken egg. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 44(7), 710-720. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-5812.2011.00773.x
  • Bozkuş, F., Kalaycı, Ö., & Toluk Uçar, Z. (2025). An analysis of algebra lesson: Can apples and pears be added? Journal of Pedagogical Research, 9(1), 274–295. https://doi.org/10.33902/JPR.202529564
  • Brown, H. K. (2012). The “silent but gifted” law student: Transforming anxious public speakers into well-rounded advocates. Legal Writing: The Journal of the Legal Writing Institute, 18, 291–338.
  • Copelin, R. M. (2015). Socratic circles are a luxury: Exploring the conceptualization of a dialogic tool in three science classrooms [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Arkansas.
  • Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (4th ed.). Pearson.
  • Çanakçı, O., & Özdemir, A. (2011). The construction of mathematics problem solving attitude scale. Abant Izzet Baysal University Journal of Faculty of Education, 11(1), 119–136. https://izlik.org/JA65GX28AX
  • Dekker, R., & Elshout-Mohr, M. (1998). A process model for interaction and mathematical level raising. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 35, 303–314. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1003187204737
  • Delić, H., & Bećirović, S. (2016). Socratic method as an approach to teaching. European Researcher, 111(10), 511–517. https://doi.org/10.13187/er.2016.111.511
  • Dowie, A. (2023). Ethical sense, medical ethics education, and maieutics. Medical Teacher, 45(8), 838–844. https://doi.org/10.1080/0142159X.2023.2178885
  • Edwards, M. (2019). High school teachers' perceptions of developing critical thinkers via the Socratic method [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Walden University.
  • Elbir, D., & Özmen, Z. M. (2024). Investigation of mathematics teachers’ teaching practices in transition to algebra in the context of letter symbols. Journal of Pedagogical Sociology and Psychology, 6(2), 47–63. https://doi.org/10.33902/jpsp.202426544
  • Elia, I., van den Heuvel-Panhuizen, M., & Kolovou, A. (2009). Exploring strategy use and strategy flexibility in non-routine problem solving by primary school high achievers in mathematics. ZDM, 41(5), 605–618. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-009-0184-6
  • Fahim, M., & Bagheri, M. B. (2012). Fostering critical thinking through Socrates' questioning in Iranian language institutes. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 3(6), 1122. https://doi.org/10.4304/jltr.3.6.1122-1127
  • Gavaz, H. O., Yazgan, Y., & Arslan, Y. (2021). Non-routine problem solving and strategy flexibility: A quasi-experimental study. Journal of Pedagogical Research, 5(3), 40–54. https://doi.org/10.33902/JPR.2021370581
  • Hannula, M. S. (2002). Attitude towards mathematics: emotions, expectations and values. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 49(1), 25–46. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016048823497
  • Hüner, S. B. (2021). Effect of Socratic questioning on success and attitude and the compliance of the thoughts produced to intellectual standards. Ankara University Journal of Faculty of Educational Sciences, 54(1), 35–68. https://doi.org/10.30964/auebfd.632214
  • Ibrahim, M., & Badli, N. A. M. (2025). STEM in chemistry: cultivating problem-solving skills via blended problembased learning Socratics module. LUMAT: International Journal on Math, Science and Technology Education, 12(4), 4. https://doi.org/10.31129/LUMAT.12.4.2445
  • Jupri, A., Usdiyana, D., & Sispiyati, R. (2026). From student difficulties to design of a hypothetical learning trajectory: The case of system of linear equations in two variables. International Journal of Didactical Studies, 7(3), e41091. https://doi.org/10.33902/ijods.202641091
  • Kama, Z., Işıksal Bostan, M., & Tunç Pekkan, Z. (2023). Sixth-grade students’ pattern generalization approaches. Journal of Pedagogical Research, 7(5), 136–155. https://doi.org/10.33902/JPR.202316928
  • Kaya, D., Keşan, C., İzgiol, D., & Erkuş, Y. (2016). Achievement level for algebraic reasoning skills of seventh grade students. Turkish Journal of Computer and Mathematics Education (TURCOMAT), 7(1), 142–163. https://doi.org/10.16949/turcomat.95945
  • Kim, Y., & Steiner, P. (2016). Quasi-experimental designs for causal inference. Educational Psychologist, 51(3–4), 395–405. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2016.1207177
  • Koç, D., & Elçi, A. N. (2022). The effect of mathematical modeling instruction on pre-service primary school teachers’ problem solving skills and attitudes towards mathematics. Journal of Pedagogical Research, 6(4), 111–129. https://doi.org/10.33902/JPR.202217783
  • Lim, S. Y., & Chapman, E. (2015). Effects of using history as a tool to teach mathematics on students’ attitudes, anxiety, motivation and achievement in grade 11 classrooms. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 90(2), 189–212. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-015-9620-4
  • McMillan, J. W., & Schumacher, S. (2014). Research in education: Evidence-based inquiry (7th ed.). Pearson.
  • Michael, J. (2006). Where’s the evidence that active learning works?. Advances in Physiology Education, 30(4), 159–167. https://doi.org/10.1152/advan.00053.2006
  • Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). Sage.
  • Ministry of National Education [MoNE]. (2024). Türkiye Yüzyılı Maarif Modeli öğretim programları ortak metni [Türkiye Century Education Model: Common text for curricula]. https://tymm.meb.gov.tr/ortak-metin
  • Mogari, D., & Chirove, M. (2017). Comparing grades 10–12 mathematics learners’ non-routine problem solving. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 13(8), 4523–4551. https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2017.00946a
  • Nancarrow, M. (2004). Exploration of metacognition and non-routine problem-based mathematics instruction on undergraduate student problem-solving success [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. The Florida State University.
  • Nuraeni, R., Rosjanuardi, R., Jupri, A., & Nurlaelah, E. (2026). The Socratic method in mathematics learning: A systematic literature review. Frontiers in Education, 11, 1831645. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2026.1831645
  • Özsaraç, E. N. (2019). Effect of using Socratic questioning method in Turkish lesson on 6th grade students' higher order thinking skills (Publication no. 617505) [Doctoral dissertation, Necmettin Erbakan University]. Council of Higher Education Thesis Center.
  • Öztürk, M., Akkan, Y., & Kaplan, A. (2020). Reading comprehension, mathematics self-efficacy perception, and mathematics attitude as correlates of students’ non-routine mathematics problem-solving skills in Turkey. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 51(7), 1042–1058. https://doi.org/10.1080/0020739X.2019.1648893
  • Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2008). Critical thinking: The art of Socratic questioning, part III. Journal of Developmental Education, 31(3), 34–35.
  • Pijls, M., & Dekker, R. (2011). Students discussing their mathematical ideas: The role of the teacher. Mathematics Education Research Journal, 23(4), 379–396. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13394-011-0022-3
  • Polat, H., & Özkaya, M. (2023). The effect of problem posing-based active learning activities on problem-solving and posing performance: The case of fractions. Journal of Pedagogical Research, 7(1), 67–81. https://doi.org/10.33902/JPR.202317880
  • Polya, G. (1957). How to solve it? Princeton University Press.
  • Rhee, R. J. (2007). The Socratic method and the mathematical heuristic of George Pólya. St. John's Law Review, 81(4), 881–898.
  • Sasman, M. L. L., & Olivier, A. (1997). Reconceptualising school algebra, algebra rationale. Stellenbosch University.
  • Steen, L. A. (1999). Twenty questions about mathematical reasoning. In L. V. Stiff & F. R. Curcio (Eds.), Developing mathematical reasoning in grades K-12. 1999 yearbook (pp. 270–285). National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
  • Stephenson, D. (2001). Maths problem solving techniques. Ready-Ed Publishers.
  • Şimşek, B., & Soylu, Y. (2019). Examination of the mistakes made by 7th-grade students in relation to algebraic expressions. The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies, 75, 47-64. https://doi.org/10.9761/JASSS7806
  • Taylor, P. (2023). Balancing the equation: Using Socratic dialogue to increase student engagement and achievement in a middle school mathematics classroom. Florida Journal of Educational Research, 60(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.62798/XWKB4533
  • Wagner, T. (2008). Rigor redefined. Educational Leadership, 66(2), 20–24.
  • Yakar, P. (2017). The effects of using socratic inquiry technique on attitudes towards socio-scientific issues and motivation in science learning (Publication no. 497680) [Master’s thesis, Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University]. Council of Higher Education Thesis Center.
  • Yeo, K. K. J. (2009). Secondary 2 students’ difficulties in solving non-routine problems. International Journal for Mathematics Teaching and Learning, 10, 1–30.
  • Yıldız, A., & Dadı, M. (2019). Teaching of the 'Avagadro Number' by using the method of Socrates finding. Iğdır University Journal of Social Sciences, 17, 36–402. https://izlik.org/JA92JT52TP
  • Yıldız, P., & Yetkin Özdemir, İ. E. (2021). Teacher subject matter knowledge for the meaningful transition from arithmetic to algebra. Journal of Pedagogical Research, 5(4), 172–188. https://doi.org/10.33902/JPR.2021474587
  • Zaimoğlu, Ş. (2022). Examining of in-class student question levels in terms of Bloom taxonomy through Socratic seminars based on dialogical discussions [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Bursa Uludağ University.
  • Zhu, Y., & Fan, L. (2006). Focus on the representation of problem types in intended curriculum: A comparison of selected mathematics textbooks from Mainland China and the United States. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 4(4), 609–626. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-006-9036-9
LICENSE
This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.